26.6 - Section Formula

In the previous section, we completed a discussion on components of a vector. In this  section, we will see vector joining two points. Later in this section, we will see section formula also.

Vector joining two points

This can be explained in 6 steps:
1. In fig.26.22 below, P₁ and P₂ are any two points in space. We want $\small{\vec{P_1 P_2}}$ in component form.

Fig.26.22

2. Consider the three vectors $\small{\vec{OP_1},~\vec{OP_2}~\vec{P_1 P_2}}$.
They form the sides of a triangle.
3. Applying triangle law, we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{OP_1}~+~\vec{P_1 P_2}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OP_2}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{OP_1}~+~\vec{P_1 P_2}~+~\left(-\vec{OP_1} \right)}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OP_2}~+~\left(-\vec{OP_1} \right)}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{P_1 P_2}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OP_2}~-~\vec{OP_1}}
\\ \end{array}}$
◼ Remarks:
2 (magenta color): Here we add  the −ve of $\small{\vec{OP_1}}$ on both sides
4. We have the component form of $\small{\vec{OP_1}~\text{and}~\vec{OP_2}}$:
$\small{\vec{OP_1}=x_1\hat{i}+y_1\hat{j}+z_1\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{OP_2}=x_2\hat{i}+y_2\hat{j}+z_2\hat{k}}$
5. Therefore:
$\small{\vec{P_1 P_2}=\left(x_2 - x_1 \right)\hat{i}~+~\left(y_2 - y_1 \right)\hat{j}~+~\left(z_2 - z_1 \right)\hat{k}}$
6. We can write the magnitude also:
$\small{\left| \vec{P_1 P_2}\right| = \sqrt{\left(x_2 - x_1 \right)^2 + \left(y_2 - y_1 \right)^2 + \left(z_2 - z_1 \right)^2}}$

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Now we will see a solved example.

Solved example 26.24
Find the vector joining the points P(2,3,0) and Q(−1,−2,−4) directed from P to Q
Solution:
• We want the vector directed from P to Q. So P is the initial point and Q is the terminal point.
• Then we can write:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{PQ}}    & {~=~}    &{(-1-2)\hat{i}+(-2-3)\hat{j}+(-4-0)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{PQ}}    & {~=~}    &{-3\hat{i}-5\hat{j}-4\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

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Section formula

• P and Q are two points in space.
    ♦ $\small{\vec{OP}}$ is the position vector of P.
    ♦ $\small{\vec{OQ}}$ is the position vector of Q
• We know that, a line of infinite length can be drawn connecting P and Q. Consider a point R on this line. We want the position vector of R
• Two cases can arise in this situation.
Case I: R is within the line segment PQ
This can be analyzed in 6 steps:
1. In fig.26.23 below, point R is within PQ such that:
    ♦ Length PR = $\small{m\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}$
    ♦ Length QR = $\small{n\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}$
• $\small{m~\text{and}~n}$ are +ve scalars

Fig.26.23

2. We can write:
$\small{\frac{\left|\vec{PR} \right|}{\left|\vec{RQ} \right|} = \frac{m\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}{n\left|\vec{PQ} \right|} = \frac{m}{n}}$
• That means, R divides PQ internally in the ratio m:n
3. In the above step, all quantities are scalars because, we took the ratio of magnitudes. Let us try to bring vectors also into the equation.
• In the fig.26.23 above, $\small{\vec{PR}~\text{and}~\vec{RQ}}$ have the same direction. So their corresponding unit vectors will be equal.
We get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{\hat{RQ}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{\left|\vec{PR} \right|}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{RQ}}{\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{mn\left|\vec{PR} \right|}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m\left(n\left|\vec{PR} \right| \right)}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    5    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m\left(m\left|\vec{RQ} \right| \right)}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    6    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{RQ}}{n}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    7    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\,\vec{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{m\,\vec{RQ}}
\\ \end{array}}$

◼ Remarks:
• 3 (magenta color): Here we divide both sides by mn
• 5 (magenta color): Here we use the result
$\small{n\left|\vec{PR} \right| = m\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}$, which can be obtained from (2)

4. From triangle ORP, we get:
$\small{\vec{PR} = \vec{OR} - \vec{OP}}$
5. From triangle ORQ, we get:
$\small{\vec{RQ} = \vec{OQ} - \vec{OR}}$
6. From (3), we have: $\small{n\,\vec{PR} = m\,\vec{RQ}}$
• Substituting from (4) and (5), we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{n\,\vec{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{m\,\vec{RQ}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\left(\vec{OR} - \vec{OP} \right)}    & {~=~}    &{m\left(\vec{OQ} - \vec{OR} \right)}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\,\vec{OR} - n\,\vec{OP}}    & {~=~}    &{m\,\vec{OQ} - m\,\vec{OR}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{(m+n)\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{m\,\vec{OQ}+n\,\vec{OP}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    5    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{m\,\vec{OQ}~+~n\,\vec{OP}}{m+n}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Case II: R is outside the line segment PQ, on the extension of PQ
This can be analyzed in 6 steps:
1. In fig.26.24 below, point R is outside PQ such that:
    ♦ Length PR = $\small{m\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}$
    ♦ Length QR = $\small{n\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}$
• $\small{m~\text{and}~n}$ are +ve scalars

Fig.26.24

2. We can write:
$\small{\frac{\left|\vec{PR} \right|}{\left|\vec{RQ} \right|} = \frac{m\left|\vec{PQ} \right|}{n\left|\vec{PQ} \right|} = \frac{m}{n}}$
• That means, R divides PQ externally in the ratio m:n
3. In the above step, all quantities are scalars because, we took the ratio of magnitudes. Let us try to bring vectors also into the equation.
• In the fig.26.24 above, $\small{\vec{PR}~\text{and}~\vec{RQ}}$ have opposite directions. So their corresponding unit vectors will differ by sign only.
We get:

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{-\hat{RQ}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{\left|\vec{PR} \right|}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-\vec{RQ}}{\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{mn\left|\vec{PR} \right|}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m\left(n\left|\vec{PR} \right| \right)}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    5    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m\left(m\left|\vec{RQ} \right| \right)}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-\vec{RQ}}{mn\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    6    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\frac{\vec{PR}}{m}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{-RQ}}{n}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    7    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\,\vec{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{-m\,\vec{RQ}}
\\ \end{array}}$

◼ Remarks:
• 3 (magenta color): Here we divide both sides by mn
• 5 (magenta color): Here we use the result
$\small{n\left|\vec{PR} \right| = m\left|\vec{RQ} \right|}$, which can be obtained from (2)

4. From triangle ORP, we get:
$\small{\vec{PR} = \vec{OR} - \vec{OP}}$
5. From triangle ORQ, we get:
$\small{\vec{RQ} = \vec{OQ} - \vec{OR}}$
6. From (3), we have: $\small{n\,\vec{PR} = -m\,\vec{RQ}}$
• Substituting from (4) and (5), we get:

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{n\,\vec{PR}}    & {~=~}    &{-m\,\vec{RQ}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\left(\vec{OR} - \vec{OP} \right)}    & {~=~}    &{-m\left(\vec{OQ} - \vec{OR} \right)}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{n\,\vec{OR} - n\,\vec{OP}}    & {~=~}    &{-m\,\vec{OQ} + m\,\vec{OR}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{(m-n)\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{m\,\vec{OQ}-n\,\vec{OP}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    5    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{m\,\vec{OQ}~-~n\,\vec{OP}}{m-n}}
\\ \end{array}}$

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Now we will see a special case. It can be written in 2 steps:
1. Let R be the midpoint of PQ. Then we can apply case I because, R will be between P and Q
• So we have: $\small{\vec{OR} = \frac{m\,\vec{OQ}~+~n\,\vec{OP}}{m+n}}$
2. Since R is the midpoint, we can write: m = n = 1
• Substituting these values of m and n in (1), we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{(1)\,\vec{OQ}~+~(1)\,\vec{OP}}{1+1}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{{\Rightarrow}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\vec{OQ}~+~\vec{OP}}{2}}
\\ \end{array}}$

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Now we will see some solved examples.

Solved example 26.25
Consider two points P and Q with position vectors $\small{\vec{OP} = 3\vec{a}-2\vec{b}}$ and $\small{\vec{OQ} = \vec{a}+\vec{b}}$. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q in the ratio 2:1, (I) internally and (ii) externally.
Solution:
Part (i):
• For internal division, we have the formula:
$\small{\vec{OR} = \frac{m\,\vec{OQ}~+~n\,\vec{OP}}{m+n}}$
• Substituting the values, we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{(2)\left(\vec{a}+\vec{b} \right)~+~(1)\left(3\vec{a}-2\vec{b} \right)}{2+1}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\vec{a} + 2\vec{b}+3\vec{a}-2\vec{b}}{3}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{5\vec{a}}{3}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Part (ii):
• For external division, we have the formula:
$\small{\vec{OR} = \frac{m\,\vec{OQ}~-~n\,\vec{OP}}{m-n}}$
• Substituting the values, we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{OR}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{(2)\left(\vec{a}+\vec{b} \right)~-~(1)\left(3\vec{a}-2\vec{b} \right)}{2-1}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\vec{a} + 2\vec{b}-3\vec{a}+2\vec{b}}{1}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{4\vec{b}-\vec{a}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.26
Show that the points
$\small{A\left(2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+\hat{k} \right)}$
$\small{B\left(\hat{i}-3\hat{j}-5\hat{k} \right)}$
$\small{C\left(3\hat{i}-4\hat{j}-4\hat{k} \right)}$
are the vertices of a right angled triangle
Solution:
1. Let us write the vectors connecting the points
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{AB}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OB} - \vec{OA}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\hat{i}-3\hat{j}-5\hat{k}~-~\left[2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+\hat{k} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{-\hat{i}-2\hat{j}-6\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{BC}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OC} - \vec{OB}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{3\hat{i}-4\hat{j}-4\hat{k}~-~\left[\hat{i}-3\hat{j}-5\hat{k} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{CA}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{OA} - \vec{OC}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+\hat{k}~-~\left[3\hat{i}-4\hat{j}-4\hat{k} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{-\hat{i}+3\hat{j}+5\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

2. Now we can write the squares of the magnitudes of the above vectors:

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{AB}}    & {~=~}    &{-\hat{i}-2\hat{j}-6\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\left|\vec{AB} \right|^2}    & {~=~}    &{(-1)^2 + (-2)^2 + (-6)^2}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{41}
\\ \end{array}}$

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{BC}}    & {~=~}    &{2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\left|\vec{BC} \right|^2}    & {~=~}    &{(2)^2 + (-1)^2 + (1)^2}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{6}
\\ \end{array}}$

$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{CA}}    & {~=~}    &{-\hat{i}+3\hat{j}+5\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\left|\vec{CA} \right|^2}    & {~=~}    &{(-1)^2 + (3)^2 + (5)^2}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{35}
\\ \end{array}}$

3. We see that:
$\small{\left|\vec{AB} \right|^2 = \left|\vec{BC} \right|^2 + \left|\vec{CA} \right|^2}$

4. Applying Pythagoras theorem, we can say that:
    ♦ AB is the hypotenuse
    ♦ BC and CA form base and altitude
• So the three points are the vertices of a right angled triangle.

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The link below gives a few more solved examples:

Exercise 26.2

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In the next section, we will see scalar product.

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26.5 - Solved Examples

In the previous section, we saw components of a vector. We saw a solved example also. In this  section, we will see a few more solved examples.

Solved example 26.7
Find the values of x and y so that the vectors $\small{2\hat{i} + 3\hat{j}}$ and $\small{x\hat{i} + y\hat{j}}$ are equal
Solution:
1. If two vectors are equal, their corresponding components will be equal.
2. Let us equate the corresponding components:
• Equating the vector components along the x-axis, we get: $\small{2\hat{i} = x\hat{i}}$. Therefore, x = 2
• Equating the vector components along the y-axis, we get: $\small{3\hat{j} = y\hat{i}}$. Therefore, y = 3

Solved example 26.8
Let $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i} + 2\hat{j}}$ and $\small{\vec{b} = 2\hat{i} + \hat{j}}$.
Is $\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \left|\vec{b} \right|}$?
Are the vectors $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ equal?
Solution:
Part (a): Comparing the magnitudes
1. $\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \sqrt{1^2 + 2^2} = \sqrt{5}}$
2. $\small{\left|\vec{b} \right| = \sqrt{2^2 + 1^2} = \sqrt{5}}$
3. The magnitudes are equal. So $\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \left|\vec{b} \right|}$

Part (b): Checking equality of vectors
1. If two vectors are equal, their corresponding components will be equal.
2. Let us compare the corresponding components:
• Comparing the vector components along the x-axis, we see that: $\small{\hat{i} ~\ne~ 2\hat{i}}$.
• Comparing the vector components along the y-axis, we see that: $\small{2\hat{j} ~\ne~ \hat{j}}$
3. Two vectors cannot be equal if even one of the corresponding components are not equal. So the given two vectors are not equal.

Solved example 26.9
Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
$\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i} + \hat{j} + \hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b} = 2\hat{i} - 7\hat{j} - 3\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{c} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \hat{i} + \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \hat{j} - \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \hat{k}}$
Solution:
Part (a):
$\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \sqrt{1^2 + 1^2 + 1^2} = \sqrt{3}}$
Part (b):
$\small{\left|\vec{b} \right| = \sqrt{2^2 + (-7)^2 + (-3)^2} = \sqrt{4 + 49 + 9} = \sqrt{62}}$
Part (c):
$\small{\left|\vec{c} \right| = \sqrt{\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \right)^2 + \left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \right)^2 + \left(-\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \right)^2} =\frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3} = \frac{3}{3} = 1}$

Solved example 26.10
Write two different vectors having same magnitude
Solution:
We want two different vectors having the same magnitude. It can be done in 2 steps:
1. First write any convenient vector, say: $\small{\vec{a} = 3\hat{i}+4\hat{j}}$
2. Now we write the second vector by changing the order/sign of the scalar components. So the two vectors are:
$\small{\vec{a} = 3\hat{i}+4\hat{j}}$
$\small{\vec{b} = 4\hat{i}+3\hat{j}}$
• We have the magnitudes:
$\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \sqrt{3^2 + 4^2} = \sqrt{25} = 5}$
$\small{\left|\vec{b} \right| = \sqrt{4^2 + 3^2} = \sqrt{25} = 5}$
• Fig.26.20 below shows the difference in directions:

Fig.26.20

◼ Note:
There are other possibilities also:
$\small{\vec{a} = 3\hat{i}+4\hat{j}}$
$\small{\vec{c} = 3\hat{i}-4\hat{j}}$
$\small{\vec{d} = -4\hat{i}+3\hat{j}}$
$\small{\vec{e} = -3\hat{i}-4\hat{j}}$
• All these vectors have different directions. But they have the same magnitude. We can pick any two from them.

Solved example 26.11
Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = 2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}+\hat{k}}$
Solution:
• We have: $\small{\hat{a}=\frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}+\hat{k}}{\sqrt{2^2 + 3^2 + 1^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}+\hat{k}}{\sqrt{14}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{14}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{14}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{14}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.12
Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i}+\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}$
Solution:
• We have: $\small{\hat{a}=\frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}+\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{1^2 + 1^2 + 2^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}+\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{6}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{6}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.13
Find a vector in the direction of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i}-2\hat{j}}$ that has magnitude 7 units.
Solution:
1. First we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{a}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{a}=\frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}-2\hat{j}}{\sqrt{1^2 + (-2)^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}-2\hat{j}}{\sqrt{5}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{a}}$

2. So the required vector is:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{7\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{7\left[\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{j} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{7}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{14}{\sqrt{5}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.14
Find a vector in the direction of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = 5\hat{i}-\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}$ that has magnitude 8 units.
Solution:
1. First we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{a}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{a}=\frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{5\hat{i}-\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{5^2 + (-1)^2 + 2^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{5\hat{i}-\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{30}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{5}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$

• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{a}}$

2. So the required vector is:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{8\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{8\left[\left(\frac{5}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{40}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{8}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{16}{\sqrt{30}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.15
Write two different vectors having same direction
Solution:
We want two different vectors having the same direction. It can be done in 6 steps:
1. First write any convenient vector, say: $\small{\vec{a} = 2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}}$
2. Now write $\small{\hat{a}}$. We get:
$\small{\hat{a}=\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{j}}$
• The reader may write all steps involved in finding the unit vector
3. Multiply the unit vector in (2), by any convenient scalar, to get a new vector $\small{\vec{b}}$:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{b}}    & {~=~}    &{\sqrt{13}\,\hat{a}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\sqrt{13}\left[\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{j} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\vec{b}}    & {~=~}    &{2 \hat{i}+3 \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• Note that: $\small{\vec{b}=\vec{a}}$
4. Multiply the unit vector in (2), by any other convenient scalar, to get a third vector $\small{\vec{c}}$:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{c}}    & {~=~}    &{2\sqrt{13}\,\hat{a}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{2\sqrt{13}\left[\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{13}} \right) \hat{j} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\vec{c}}    & {~=~}    &{4 \hat{i}+6 \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$
5. $\small{\vec{b}~\text{and}~\vec{c}}$ are the required vectors
6. Fig.26.21 shows the two vectors:

Fig.26.21

Solved example 26.16
Find the sum of the vectors
$\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i}-2 \hat{j} + \hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b} = -2\hat{i}+4 \hat{j} + 5\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{c} = \hat{i}-6 \hat{j} -7 \hat{k}}$
Solution:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{a}+\vec{b}+\vec{c}}    & {~=~}    &{(1-2+1)\hat{i}+(-2+4-6) \hat{j} + (1+5-7)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{(0)\hat{i}+(-4) \hat{j} + (-1)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{-4 \hat{j}-\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.17
Find unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors
$\small{\vec{a} = 2\hat{i}+2 \hat{j} -5 \hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b} = 2\hat{i}+ \hat{j} + 3\hat{k}}$
Solution:
1. First we will find the sum:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{c} = \vec{a}+\vec{b}}    & {~=~}    &{(2+2)\hat{i}+(2+1) \hat{j} + (-5+3)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{(4)\hat{i}+(3) \hat{j} + (-2)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{4\hat{i}+3 \hat{j} -2\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

2. Now we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{c}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{c}=\frac{\vec{c}}{\left|\vec{c} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{c}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{4\hat{i}+3 \hat{j} -2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{4^2 + 3^2 + (-2)^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{4\hat{i}+3 \hat{j} -2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{29}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{4}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{j}-\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{c}}$ 

Solved example 26.18
Find unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors
$\small{\vec{a} = 2\hat{i}- \hat{j} +2 \hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b} = -\hat{i}+ \hat{j} - \hat{k}}$
Solution:
1. First we will find the sum:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{c} = \vec{a}+\vec{b}}    & {~=~}    &{(2-1)\hat{i}+(-1+1) \hat{j} + (2-1)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{(1)\hat{i}+(0) \hat{j} + (1)\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\hat{i}+\hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

2. Now we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{c}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{c}=\frac{\vec{c}}{\left|\vec{c} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{c}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}+\hat{k}}{\sqrt{1^2 + 1^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{\hat{i}+\hat{k}}{\sqrt{2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{c}}$

Solved example 26.19
Write the direction ratios of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i} + \hat{j} -2 \hat{k}}$ and hence calculate its direction cosines.
Solution:
1. Any vector is the resultant of three component vectors:
    ♦ Component along the OX axis, which is $\small{x \hat{i}}$
    ♦ Component along the OY axis, which is $\small{y \hat{j}}$
    ♦ Component along the OZ axis, which is $\small{z \hat{k}}$
• So any given vector can be written as: $\small{x\hat{i}+y\hat{j}+z\hat{k}}$
2. The vector given to us is: $\small{\vec{a}=\hat{i}+\hat{j}-2\hat{k}}$
• Comparing the corresponding components, we get: x = 1, y = 1 and z = −2
3. $\small{r = \left|\vec{a} \right|=\sqrt{1^2 + 1^2 + (-2)^2} = \sqrt{6}}$
4. The three direction ratios are:
    ♦ $\small{lr = x = 1}$
    ♦ $\small{mr = y = 1}$
    ♦ $\small{nr = z = -2}$
Where $\small{l,~m,~n}$ are the direction cosines
5. So the three direction cosines are:
    ♦ $\small{l = \frac{x}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}}$
    ♦ $\small{m = \frac{y}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}}$
    ♦ $\small{n = \frac{z}{r} = \frac{-2}{\sqrt{6}}}$

Solved example 26.20
Find the direction cosines of the vector $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i} + 2\hat{j} +3 \hat{k}}$ and hence calculate its direction cosines.
Solution:
1. Any vector is the resultant of three component vectors:
    ♦ Component along the OX axis, which is $\small{x \hat{i}}$
    ♦ Component along the OY axis, which is $\small{y \hat{j}}$
    ♦ Component along the OZ axis, which is $\small{z \hat{k}}$
• So any given vector can be written as: $\small{x\hat{i}+y\hat{j}+z\hat{k}}$
2. The vector given to us is: $\small{\vec{a}=\hat{i}+2\hat{j}+3\hat{k}}$
• Comparing the corresponding components, we get: x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3
3. $\small{r = \left|\vec{a} \right|=\sqrt{1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2} = \sqrt{14}}$
4. The three direction ratios are:
    ♦ $\small{lr = x = 1}$
    ♦ $\small{mr = y = 2}$
    ♦ $\small{nr = z = 3}$
Where $\small{l,~m,~n}$ are the direction cosines
5. So the three direction cosines are:
    ♦ $\small{l = \frac{x}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{14}}}$
    ♦ $\small{m = \frac{y}{r} = \frac{2}{\sqrt{14}}}$
    ♦ $\small{n = \frac{z}{r} = \frac{3}{\sqrt{14}}}$

Solved example 26.21
Show that the vector $\small{\vec{a} = \hat{i} + \hat{j} + \hat{k}}$ is equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ.
Solution:
1. Any vector is the resultant of three component vectors:
    ♦ Component along the OX axis, which is $\small{x \hat{i}}$
    ♦ Component along the OY axis, which is $\small{y \hat{j}}$
    ♦ Component along the OZ axis, which is $\small{z \hat{k}}$
• So any given vector can be written as: $\small{x\hat{i}+y\hat{j}+z\hat{k}}$
2. The vector given to us is: $\small{\vec{a}=\hat{i}+\hat{j}+\hat{k}}$
• Comparing the corresponding components, we get: x = 1, y = 1 and z = 1
3. $\small{r = \left|\vec{a} \right|=\sqrt{1^2 + 1^2 + 1^2} = \sqrt{3}}$
4. The three direction ratios are:
    ♦ $\small{lr = x = 1}$
    ♦ $\small{mr = y = 1}$
    ♦ $\small{nr = z = 1}$
Where $\small{l,~m,~n}$ are the direction cosines
5. So the three direction cosines are:
    ♦ $\small{l = \frac{x}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
    ♦ $\small{m = \frac{y}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
    ♦ $\small{n = \frac{z}{r} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
6. The three direction cosines are equal. That means, the three angles are equal.

Solved example 26.22
Show that the vectors $\small{\vec{a}=2\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+4\hat{k}}$ and $\small{\vec{b}=-4\hat{i}+6\hat{j}-8\hat{k}}$ are collinear.
Solution:
1. Unit vector in the direction of $\small{\vec{a}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{a}=\frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{a}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+4\hat{k}}{\sqrt{2^2 + (-3)^2 + (4)^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{2\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+4\hat{k}}{\sqrt{29}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{4}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

2. Unit vector in the direction of $\small{\vec{b}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{b}=\frac{\vec{b}}{\left|\vec{b} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{b}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-4\hat{i}+6\hat{j}-8\hat{k}}{\sqrt{(-4)^2 + 6^2 + (-8)^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{-4\hat{i}+6\hat{j}-8\hat{k}}{\sqrt{116}}~=~\frac{-4\hat{i}+6\hat{j}-8\hat{k}}{2\sqrt{29}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{-2}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{j}-\left(\frac{4}{\sqrt{29}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$

3. We see that, $\small{\hat{a}=-\hat{b}}$
• That means: $\small{\hat{a}}$ has the exact opposite direction of $\small{\hat{b}}$
• That means: $\small{\vec{a}}$ has the exact opposite direction of $\small{\vec{b}}$
• That means: $\small{\vec{a}}$ and $\small{\vec{b}}$ are parallel.
• Therefore  $\small{\vec{a}}$ and $\small{\vec{b}}$ are collinear.

Solved example 26.23
If $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are two collinear vectors, then which of the following are incorrect:
(a) $\small{\vec{b} = \lambda\vec{a}}$ for some scalar $\small{\lambda}$
(b) $\small{\vec{a} = \pm \vec{b}}$
(c) the respective components of $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are proportional
(d) both the vectors $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ have same direction, but different magnitudes
Solution:
Part (a):
Given that $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are collinear. That means, they are parallel. So (a) is true.
Part (b):
$\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are parallel. But they need not have the same direction. The directions may be opposite to each other. So (b) is true.
Part (c):
Since (a) is true, we can multiply each component of $\small{\vec{a}}$ by $\small{\lambda}$. That means, corresponding components are proportional. So (c) is true.
Part (d):
$\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are parallel. But they need not have the same direction. The directions may be opposite to each other. So (d) is false.

Therefore, the correct option is (d)

Solved example 26.24
Find the value of x for which $\small{x\left(\hat{i}+\hat{j}+\hat{k} \right)}$ is a unit vector
Solution:
1. Let $\small{\vec{a}=x\left(\hat{i}+\hat{j}+\hat{k} \right)}$.
Then we can write: $\small{\vec{a}=x\hat{i}+x\hat{j}+x\hat{k}}$
2. Now we can calculate the magnitude:
$\small{\left|\vec{a} \right| = \sqrt{x^2 + x^2 + x^2} = \sqrt{3x^2} = \pm\sqrt{3}\,x}$
3. $\small{\vec{a}}$ is to be a unit vector. So it's magnitude must be 1. We can write:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\left|\vec{a} \right|}    & {~=~}    &{1}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{\pm\sqrt{3}\,x}    & {~=~}    &{1}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{x}    & {~=~}    &{\pm\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.25
Find a vector of magnitude 5 units, and parallel to the resultant of the vectors
$\small{\vec{a}=2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}-\hat{k}~\text{and}~\vec{b}=\hat{i}-2\hat{j}+\hat{k}}$
Solution:
1. First we find the resultant $\small{\vec{a}+\vec{b}}$:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{c}}    & {~=~}    &{\vec{a}+\vec{b}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{2\hat{i}+3\hat{j}-\hat{k}~+~\hat{i}-2\hat{j}+\hat{k}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{3\hat{i}+\hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$

2. Now we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{c}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{c}=\frac{\vec{c}}{\left|\vec{c} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{c}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{3\hat{i}+\hat{j}}{\sqrt{3^2 + 1^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{3\hat{i}+\hat{j}}{\sqrt{10}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{c}}$

3. So the required vector is:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{5\hat{c}}    & {~=~}    &{5\left[\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{1}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{j} \right]}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{15}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{5}{\sqrt{10}} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{15 \sqrt{10}}{10} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{5 \sqrt{10}}{10} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{3 \sqrt{10}}{2} \right) \hat{i}+\left(\frac{\sqrt{10}}{2} \right) \hat{j}}
\\ \end{array}}$

Solved example 26.26
If
$\small{\vec{a}=\hat{i}+\hat{j}+\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b}=2\hat{i}-\hat{j}+3\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{c}=\hat{i}-2\hat{j}+\hat{k}}$
find a unit vector parallel to the vector $\small{2\vec{a}-\vec{b}+3\vec{c}}$
Solution:
1. First we find the vector $\small{\vec{d}=2\vec{a}-\vec{b}+3\vec{c}}$.
We get: $\small{\vec{d}=3\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}$
2. Now we will write the unit vector $\small{\hat{d}}$
• We have: $\small{\hat{d}=\frac{\vec{d}}{\left|\vec{d} \right|}}$
• Thus we get:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\hat{d}}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{3\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{3^2 +(-3)^2 + 2^2}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\frac{3\hat{i}-3\hat{j}+2\hat{k}}{\sqrt{22}}}
\\ {~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{}    &{}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{22}} \right) \hat{i}-\left(\frac{3}{\sqrt{22}} \right) \hat{j}+\left(\frac{2}{\sqrt{22}} \right) \hat{k}}
\\ \end{array}}$
• This unit vector has the same direction as $\small{\vec{d}}$.

Solved example 26.27
Show that the direction cosines of a vector equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ are $\small{\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}},~\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}},~\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
Solution:
1. Any vector is the resultant of three component vectors:
    ♦ Component along the OX axis, which is $\small{x \hat{i}}$
    ♦ Component along the OY axis, which is $\small{y \hat{j}}$
    ♦ Component along the OZ axis, which is $\small{z \hat{k}}$
• So any given vector can be written as: $\small{\vec{a}=x\hat{i}+y\hat{j}+z\hat{k}}$
2. Let $\small{r = \left|\vec{a} \right|=\sqrt{x^2 + y^2 + z^2}}$
3. The three direction ratios are:
    ♦ $\small{lr = x}$
    ♦ $\small{mr = y}$
    ♦ $\small{nr = z}$
Where $\small{l,~m,~n}$ are the direction cosines
4. So the three direction cosines are:
    ♦ $\small{l = \frac{x}{r}}$
    ♦ $\small{m = \frac{y}{r}}$
    ♦ $\small{n = \frac{z}{r}}$
5. The vector is  equally inclined to the axes OX, OY and OZ. So we can write:
$\small{l=m=n}$
• Then from (4), we get:
$\small{\Rightarrow x=y=z}$
6. So from (2), we get:
• $\small{r=\sqrt{x^2 + x^2 + x^2}=\sqrt{3x^2}=\sqrt{3}\,x }$
• $\small{r=\sqrt{y^2 + y^2 + y^2}=\sqrt{3y^2}=\sqrt{3}\,y }$
• $\small{r=\sqrt{z^2 + z^2 + z^2}=\sqrt{3z^2}=\sqrt{3}\,z }$
7. Based on (4) and (6), we get:
• $\small{l = \frac{x}{r}=\frac{x}{\sqrt{3}\,x}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
• $\small{m = \frac{y}{r}=\frac{y}{\sqrt{3}\,y}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$
• $\small{n = \frac{z}{r}=\frac{z}{\sqrt{3}\,z}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}}$

 

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In the next section, we will see vector joining two points.

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26.4 - Components of A Vector

In the previous section, we saw scalar multiplication and unit vector. In this  section, we will see components of a vector.

First we will see the unit vectors along the three axes. It can be explained in 4 steps:
1. A rectangular coordinate system with origin O is shown in fig.26.18 below:

Fig.26.18

2. Let us mark three points A(1,0,0), B(0,1,0) and C(0,0,1). • Based on the coordinates, we can easily see that:
    ♦ A will be at a distance of 1 unit from O, and on the +ve side of the x-axis (OX axis)
    ♦ B will be at a distance of 1 unit from O, and on the +ve side of the y-axis (OY axis)
    ♦ C will be at a distance of 1 unit from O, and on the +ve side of the z-axis (OZ axis)

3. Now we can think of three vectors: $\small{\vec{OA},\vec{OB},\vec{OC}}$
• For $\small{\vec{OA}}$, magnitude is 1. So it is a unit vector. Its direction is towards the +ve side of x-axis (OX direction)
• For $\small{\vec{OB}}$, magnitude is 1. So it is a unit vector. Its direction is towards the +ve side of y-axis (OY direction)
• For $\small{\vec{OC}}$, magnitude is 1. So it is a unit vector. Its direction is towards the +ve side of z-axis (OZ direction)

4. These three vectors are very important in vector algebra. They are given special names:
• Unit vector $\small{\vec{OA}}$ along the OX axis is denoted as $\small{\hat{i}}$
• Unit vector $\small{\vec{OB}}$ along the OY axis is denoted as $\small{\hat{j}}$
• Unit vector $\small{\vec{OC}}$ along the OZ axis is denoted as $\small{\hat{k}}$

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Now we will see the components of a position vector. It can be written in 9 steps:

1. In fig.26.19 below, P(x,y,z) is a point in space.

Fig.26.19

• From P, a perpendicular is dropped onto the XOY plane. P₁ is the foot of this perpendicular.
• From P₁, a perpendicular is dropped on to the OX axis. Q is the foot of this perpendicular.
• From P₁, a perpendicular is dropped on to the OY axis. S is the foot of this perpendicular.
• From P, a perpendicular is dropped on to the OZ axis. R is the foot of this perpendicular.

2. Consider $\small{\vec{OP}}$, the position vector of P
This position vector is the resultant of $\small{\vec{OQ}, \vec{QP_1}~\text{and}~\vec{P_1 P}}$, takern in order.
That is., $\small{\vec{OP}~=~\vec{OQ} + \vec{QP_1} + \vec{P_1 P}}$
• Let us find suitable substitutes for each of the three vectors on the R.H.S of this equation.

3. $\small{\vec{OQ}}$ has a magnitude of x because, Q is the foot of the perpendicular from P₁.
• This vector lies along the OX axis. The unit vector corresponding to this axis is $\small{\hat{i}}$
• Both $\small{\hat{i}~\text{and}~\vec{OQ}}$ has the origin at O. So instead of $\small{\vec{OQ}}$, we can write: $\small{x\,\hat{i}}$

4. So the result in (2) becomes:
$\small{\vec{OP}~=~x\,\hat{i} + \vec{QP_1} + \vec{P_1 P}}$

5. $\small{\vec{QP_1}}$ has a magnitude of y because, P₁ is the foot of the perpendicular from P.
• $\small{\vec{QP_1} = \vec{OS}}$ because, S is the foot of the perpendicular from P₁.
• $\small{\vec{OS}}$ lies along the OY axis. The unit vector corresponding to this axis is $\small{\hat{j}}$
• Both $\small{\hat{j}~\text{and}~\vec{OS}}$ has the origin at O. So instead of $\small{\vec{QP_1}}$, we can write: $\small{y\,\hat{j}}$

6. So the result in (4) becomes:
$\small{\vec{OP}~=~x\,\hat{i} + y\,\hat{j} + \vec{P_1 P}}$

7. $\small{\vec{P_1 P}}$ has a magnitude of z because, P₁ is the foot of the perpendicular from P.
• $\small{\vec{P_1 P} = \vec{OR}}$ because, R is the foot of the perpendicular from P.
• $\small{\vec{OR}}$ lies along the OZ axis. The unit vector corresponding to this axis is $\small{\hat{k}}$
• Both $\small{\hat{k}~\text{and}~\vec{OR}}$ has the origin at O. So instead of $\small{\vec{P_1 P}}$, we can write: $\small{z\,\hat{k}}$

8. So the result in (6) becomes the final result:
$\small{\vec{OP}~=~x\,\hat{i} + y\,\hat{j} + z\,\hat{k}}$

9. The result in (8) is called the component form of $\small{\vec{OP}}$
• x, y and z are called the scalar components of $\small{\vec{OP}}$
• They are also known as the rectangular components of $\small{\vec{OP}}$
• $\small{x\hat{i}, y\hat{j}~\text{and}~z\hat{k}}$ are called the vector components of $\small{\vec{OP}}$

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If we are given a vector in the component form, we will be able to find the magnitude of that vector. The method can be explained in 3 steps:

1. In fig.26.19 above, points O, Q and P₁ are vertices of a right triangle. Side OP₁ is the hypotenuse. So by applying Pythagoras theorem, we get:
$\small{\left|\vec{OP_1} \right|^2 ~=~ \left|\vec{OQ} \right|^2 + \left|\vec{QP_1} \right|^2 ~=~ x^2 + y^2}$

2. Similarly, points O, P₁ and P are vertices of a right triangle. Side OP is the hypotenuse. So by applying Pythagoras theorem, we get:
$\small{\left|\vec{OP} \right|^2 ~=~ \left|\vec{OP_1} \right|^2 + \left|\vec{P_1 P} \right|^2}$

3. Based on the result in (1), the result in (2) becomes:
$\small{\left|\vec{OP} \right|^2 ~=~ x^2 + y^2 + \left|\vec{P_1 P} \right|^2}$     
$\small{\Rightarrow \left|\vec{OP} \right|^2 ~=~ x^2 + y^2 + z^2}$     
$\small{\Rightarrow \left|\vec{OP} \right| ~=~\left|x\,\hat{i} + y\,\hat{j} + z\,\hat{k} \right|~=~ \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 + z^2}}$

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Now we will see seven useful formulas that can be applied when two vectors $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are given in component form:
• $\small{\vec{a}~=~a_1\hat{i} + a_2\hat{j} + a_3\hat{k}}$
• $\small{\vec{b}~=~b_1\hat{i} + b_2\hat{j} + b_3\hat{k}}$

1. $\small{\vec{a}+\vec{b}~=~\left( a_1 + b_1 \right)\hat{i} + \left( a_2 + b_2 \right)\hat{j} + \left( a_3 + b_3 \right)\hat{k}}$

2. $\small{\vec{a}-\vec{b}~=~\left( a_1 - b_1 \right)\hat{i} + \left( a_2 - b_2 \right)\hat{j} + \left( a_3 - b_3 \right)\hat{k}}$

3. $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are equal if and only if:
$\small{a_1 = b_1,~~a_2 = b_2,~~\text{and}~~a_3 = b_3}$

4. $\small{\lambda\vec{a}~=~\left(\lambda a_1 \right)\hat{i} + \left(\lambda a_2 \right)\hat{j} + \left(\lambda a_3 \right)\hat{k}}$
Here $\small{\lambda}$ is a scalar

5. $\small{k\vec{a} + m\vec{a}~=~(k+m)\vec{a}}$
Here $\small{k~\text{and}~m}$ are scalars

6. $\small{k\left(m\vec{a} \right)~=~(km)\vec{a}}$

7. $\small{k\left(\vec{a} + \vec{b} \right)~=~k\vec{a} + k\vec{b}}$

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Now we can write the condition for two vectors to be collinear. It can be written in 4 steps

1. If we multiply $\small{\vec{a}}$ by a scalar $\small{\lambda}$, we get a new vector $\small{\lambda\vec{a}}$. In the new vector, only the magnitude has changed. Direction remains the same. So $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\lambda\vec{a}}$ are collinear.

2. We can write the reverse also:
If $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are collinear, then there exists a scalar $\small{\lambda}$ such that, $\small{\vec{b} = \lambda\vec{a}}$

3. We can write this in component form:
If two vectors
$\small{\vec{a}~=~a_1\hat{i} + a_2\hat{j} + a_3\hat{k}}$
$\small{\vec{b}~=~b_1\hat{i} + b_2\hat{j} + b_3\hat{k}}$
are collinear then:
$\small{\begin{array}{ll} {~\color{magenta}    1    }    &{{}}    &{\vec{b}}    & {~=~}    &{\lambda\vec{a}}    \\
{~\color{magenta}    2    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{b_1\hat{i} + b_2\hat{j} + b_3\hat{k}}    & {~=~}    &{\lambda\left(a_1\hat{i} + a_2\hat{j} + a_3\hat{k} \right)}    \\
{~\color{magenta}    3    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{b_1\hat{i} + b_2\hat{j} + b_3\hat{k}}    & {~=~}    &{\left(\lambda a_1\right)\hat{i} + \left(\lambda a_2\right)\hat{j} + \left(\lambda a_3\right)\hat{k} }    \\
{~\color{magenta}    4    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{}    & {}    &{b_1 = \lambda a_1,~b_2 = \lambda a_2,~b_3= \lambda a_3}    \\
{~\color{magenta}    5    }    &{\Rightarrow}    &{}    & {}    &{\frac{b_1}{a_1} = \frac{b_2}{a_2} = \frac{b_3}{a_3} =\lambda}    \\
\end{array}}$

4. That is.,
If $\small{\vec{a}~\text{and}~\vec{b}}$ are collinear, then the all three ratios of the scalar components will be the same.

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Next we will see the relation between unit vectors and direction cosines. It can be written in 6 steps:

1. We have seen that, $\small{\hat{a}}$ is the unit vector in the direction of $\small{\vec{a}}$, and can be obtained using the formula: $\small{\hat{a} = \frac{\vec{a}}{\left|\vec{a} \right|}}$

2. Let us denote the position vector $\small{\vec{OP}}$ as $\small{\vec{r}}$.
Then we can write the unit vector in the direction of the position vector:
$\small{\hat{r} = \frac{\vec{r}}{\left|\vec{r} \right|}}$

3. If the coordinates of P are (x,y,z), then:
$\small{\vec{OP} ~=~ \vec{r} ~=~ x\,\hat{i} + y\,\hat{j} + z\,\hat{k}}$

4. Substituting this in (2), we get:
$\small{\hat{r} = \frac{x\,\hat{i} + y\,\hat{j} + z\,\hat{k}}{\left|\vec{r} \right|}~=~\left(\frac{x}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{i}+\left(\frac{y}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{j}+\left(\frac{ z}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{k}}$

5. When we learnt about direction cosines we got the following results:
$\small{x = \cos \alpha \left|\vec{r} \right|,~y = \cos \beta \left|\vec{r} \right|,~x = \cos \gamma \left|\vec{r} \right|}$
See 26.5 of the first section of this chapter

6. Substituting the result from (5) into the result in (4), we get:
$\small{\hat{r}~=~\left(\frac{\cos \alpha \left|\vec{r} \right|}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{i}+\left(\frac{\cos \beta \left|\vec{r} \right|}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{j}+\left(\frac{\cos \gamma \left|\vec{r} \right|}{\left|\vec{r} \right|} \right)\hat{k}}$

$\small{\Rightarrow\hat{r}~=~\left(\cos \alpha \right)\hat{i}+\left(\cos \beta \right)\hat{j}+\left(\cos \gamma \right)\hat{k}}$

• So, if we are given the direction cosines of a vector, then we can directly write the unit vector in the direction of that given vector.

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Now we will see a solved example

Solved example 26.6
Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors $\small{\vec{a} = x\hat{i} + 2\hat{j} + z\hat{k}}$ and $\small{\vec{b} = 2\hat{i} + y\hat{j} + \hat{k}}$ are equal
Solution:
1. If two vectors are equal, their corresponding components will be equal.
2. Let us equate the corresponding components:
• Equating the vector components along the x-axis, we get: $\small{x\hat{i} = 2\hat{i}}$. Therefore, x = 2
• Equating the vector components along the y-axis, we get: $\small{2\hat{j} = y\hat{i}}$. Therefore, y = 2
• Equating the vector components along the z-axis, we get: $\small{z\hat{k} = \hat{k}}$. Therefore, z = 1

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In the next section, we will see a few more solved examples.

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